Transcriptional regulation by cAMP and its receptor protein. CREB and the CRTC co-activators: sensors for hormonal and metabolic signals. Molecular details of cAMP generation in mammalian cells: a tale of two systems. Class III adenylyl cyclases: regulation and underlying mechanisms. Right time, right place: the organization of membrane proximal signaling. Simeoni, L., Smida, M., Posevitz, V., Schraven, B. Non-kinase second-messenger signaling: new pathways with new promise. Great times for small molecules: c-di-AMP, a second messenger candidate in bacteria and archaea. cAMP, c-di-GMP, c-di-AMP and now cGMP: bacteria use them all! Mol. Convergence of hormones and autoinducers at the host/pathogen interface. Bacterial small-molecule signaling pathways. Second messengers and membrane trafficking direct and organize growth cone steering. Cyclic AMP is both a pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic second messenger. Cyclic nucleotide research - still expanding after half a century. Transcriptome changes and cAMP oscillations in an archaeal cell cycle. Eukaryotic pathogens such as fungi and protozoa use a kinase intermediate (the protein kinase A complex) to activate their transcription factors via the cAMP pathway a family of cAMP-binding EPAC (exchange proteins activated by cAMP) proteins may represent a new class of cAMP-activated transcription factors in eukaryotes.īaumann, A., Lange, C. Most bacteria use cAMP-responsive protein (Crp)-family transcription factors, which are directly activated by cAMP, to regulate this gene expression. These regulatory pathways are complex and are specially adapted in each organism. Pathogens often use cAMP to regulate expression of virulence-associated genes, and this subversion may be coordinated with environmental signals present within the host. Such strategies include direct production of cAMP by secreted bacterial AC toxins, secretion of cAMP from bacteria, or stimulation of host ACs to overproduce cAMP through the use of ADP-ribosylating toxins and aberrant activation of AC-stimulating pathways. This can suppress the innate immune responses of macrophages and can cause diarrhoea by activating ion channels in mucosal epithelial cells to secrete excessive amounts of fluid. The signal is then transduced to downstream effector proteins through the binding of cAMP to specialized proteins.ĬAMP is widely used by microbial pathogens and their mammalian hosts to regulate cellular processes in response to environmental signals, providing numerous opportunities for pathogens to manipulate their host environments during infection.īacterial pathogens have developed many strategies for elevating cAMP levels in host cells. AC activation can be direct but often involves interaction with receptors and/or cofactors that transmit the activating signal. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a universal second messenger that is synthesized by adenylyl cyclases (ACs), which are often activated post-translationally in response to environmental signals.
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